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Topic: Aneuploidy



  
 Redflagsweekly.com
Boveri’s aneuploidy theory of cancer is as valid today as it was in 1914.
If the medical profession and biotechnology industries were to embrace the aneuploidy theory of cancer, cancer research and the flood of new technologies would at last become biologically and clinically relevant.
The fundamental difference between the aneuploidy theory and the reigning gene-mutation theory may be put this way.
http://www.redflagsweekly.com/features/rasnickP.htm   (3897 words)

  
 Aneuploidy and malignancy: an unsolved equation -- Dey 57 (12): 1245 -- Journal of Clinical Pathology
Various factors are responsible for the development of aneuploidy.
Aneuploidy can be detected with the help of traditional metaphase
of aneuploidy with special emphasis on its mechanism of development
http://jcp.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/57/12/1245   (3259 words)

  
 Sensitivity of mouse oocytes to nicotine-induced perturbations during oocyte meiotic maturation and aneuploidy in vivo ...
Mailhes, J.B. (1987) Incidence of aneuploidy in rodents.
Mailhes, J.B. (1995) Important biological variables that can influence the degree of chemical-induced aneuploidy in mammalian oocytes and zygotes.
aneuploidy in human lymphocytes, but did increase the frequencies
http://molehr.oupjournals.org/cgi/content/full/6/3/232   (3421 words)

  
 A Comparison of the Frequency of Sperm Chromosome Abnormalities in Men with Mild, Moderate, and Severe Oligozoospermia ...
Aneuploidy in human sperm: the use of multicolor FISH to test various theories of nondisjunction.
Paternal age effect of YY aneuploidy in human sperm, as assessed by fluorescence in situ hybridization.
Estimates of aneuploidy using multicolor fluorescence in situ hybridization on human sperm.
http://www.biolreprod.org/cgi/content/full/69/2/535   (2825 words)

  
 Duesberg.com - Book Review - Oncogenes, Aneuploidy and AIDS: A Scientific Life & Times of Peter H. Duesberg.
Oncogenes, Aneuploidy and AIDS has other global themes such as how science should be done, and the prominent role of metaphoric language in popular and professional scientific writing.
In this authoritative and elegantly written book, Harvey Bialy exposes a microcosm of today’s medical science in a blistering analysis of the history of modern cancer and AIDS research.
In its modern metamorphosis at the hands of Duesberg and his colleagues, this explanation of cancer has begun to receive serious and well deserved attention.
http://www.duesberg.com/books/oncogenes.html   (1547 words)

  
 Bisphenol A Exposure Causes Meiotic Aneuploidy in the Female Mouse Current Biology, v.13, 1apr03
Our initial studies were consistent with this expectation; the level of hyperploidy in 415 metaphase II control oocytes was 0.7%.
In the course of meiotic studies of mouse oocytes conducted in 1998, we observed a sudden and dramatic change in congression failure levels.
Specifically, they are consistent with the hypothesis that endocrine changes affecting oocyte growth underlie human age-related increases in nondisjunction.
http://www.mindfully.org/Plastic/Plasticizers/BPA-Mouse1apr03.htm   (5850 words)

  
 Aneuploidy correlated 100% with chemical transformation of Chinese hamster cells -- Li et al. 94 (26): 14506 -- ...
aneuploidy is the cause rather than a consequence of transformation.
and tumorigenicity, we conclude that aneuploidy is the cause rather
One Hundred Percent Correlation Between Aneuploidy and Transformation.
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/94/26/14506   (5864 words)

  
 Aneuploidy vs. gene mutation hypothesis of cancer: Recent study claims mutation but is found to support aneuploidy -- ...
However, the claim that aneuploidy is cancer specific must be balanced by the nonneoplastic and preneoplastic aneuploidies
aneuploidy, then, evolves into neoplastic aneuploidy not only
we first introduce the practically forgotten hypothesis that aneuploidy
http://www.pnas.org/cgi/content/full/97/7/3236   (5468 words)

  
 Detection of aneuploidy for chromosomes 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 17, 18, 21, X and Y by fluorescence in-situ ...
The aneuploidy found in our OAT patients' gametes does not show
An alternative technique for aneuploidy determination is FISH
upon the method used to estimate the mean aneuploidy frequency,
http://humrep.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/full/14/5/1266   (5438 words)

  
 Progesterone facilitates chromosome instability (aneuploidy) in p53 null normal mammary epithelial cells -- GOEPFERT et ...
in aneuploidy are not well understood and are likely to involve
aneuploidy can arise within a few passages (57)
The experiments described here examine the occurrence of aneuploidy
http://www.fasebj.org/cgi/content/full/14/14/2221   (5136 words)

  
 PGD at IRMS - IVF and infertility clinic of New Jersey, NJ and New York, NY.
The chances to deliver an affected child are 1/385 at 30, 1/179 at 35, 1/63 at 40 and 1/19 at the age of 45.
More than 20% of embryos from women in the age range from 35 to 39 are affected.
Aneuploidy is the cause in 50% or more of these losses.
http://www.sbivf.com/pgd_aneuploidy.htm   (1936 words)

  
 Human Sperm Aneuploidy - Genetic and Environmental Causes
Collectively, the results of this study will not only allow us to provide the first quantitative estimate of the role of genetic factors in the incidence of aneuploidy, but could also provide important insight for designing human mutagen screening tests, and providing genetic counseling to families having a child with an aneuploid condition.
This will be done by scoring the levels of aneuploidy in human sperm from identical and fraternal twins using a multi-color fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) technique.
Based on these observations one can postulate that humans are similar to other eukaryotes in that genetic factors cause some cases of nondisjunction.
http://www.vipbg.vcu.edu/hg/grant/HD33527.shtml   (370 words)

  
 Aneuploidy, or What're A Few Chromosomes, More or Less?. In the Pipeline:
Where things start to get messy, is when you try to figure out where those changes are coming from, and if they're always associated with cancer.
As a medicinal chemist, what I'm interested in are new drug targets.
Aneuploidy is found in a wide range of cancer cells - but is it a cause of cancer, or is it an effect?
http://www.corante.com/pipeline/archives/2002/08/27/aneuploidy_or_whatre_a_few_chromosomes_more_or_less.php   (1060 words)

  
 Quantitative Detection of Lung Cancer Cells by Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization: Comparison With Conventional ...
Key Words: aneuploidy • aneusomy • cytology • fluorescence in situ hybridization • lung cancer
http://www.chestjournal.org/cgi/content/abstract/128/2/906   (326 words)

  
 Molecular Cytogenetics in Solid Tumors: Laboratorial Tool for Diagnosis, Prognosis, and Therapy -- Varella-Garcia 8 ...
to aneuploidy in vitro and in vivo, and increases the incidence
Detection of chromosomal aneuploidies and gene copy number changes in fine needle aspirates is a specific, sensitive, and objective genetic test for the diagnosis of breast cancer.
Barrera JE, Varella-Garcia M. Chromosomal aneuploidy as a predictor for poor outcome in patients with head and neck cancer.
http://theoncologist.alphamedpress.org/cgi/content/full/8/1/45   (5748 words)

  
 Intrauterine diagnosis of sex chromosome aneuploidy -- Linden et al. 87 (3): 468 -- Obstetrics & Gynecology
CONCLUSION: Information about sex chromosome aneuploidy can assist obstetricians in providing accurate and comprehensive genetic counseling to parents of affected fetuses, and thereby facilitate the process of making an informed decision about pregnancy management.
Points addressed for each of the aneuploid karyotypes included expected phenotype, reproductive competence, developmental risks, and intervention therapies.
OBJECTIVE: To provide current information on sex chromosome aneuploidies to obstetricians who encounter such diagnoses and who counsel prospective parents faced with the prenatal diagnosis of a sex chromosome aneuploidy.
http://www.greenjournal.org/cgi/content/abstract/87/3/468   (401 words)

  
 Loss of Heterozygosity and DNA Aneuploidy in Colorectal Adenocarcinoma -- Lin et al. 10 (9): 1086 -- Annals of Surgical ...
Correspondence: Address correspondence and reprint requests to: Jen-Kou Lin, MD, PhD, Division of Colon and Rectal Surgery, Department of Surgery, Veterans General Hospital Taipei, No. 201, Sec.
Background: This study evaluated the relationship between DNA
The DNA aneuploidy was not associated with any clinicopathologic
http://www.annalssurgicaloncology.org/cgi/content/abstract/10/9/1086   (287 words)

  
 Variegated aneuploidy related to premature centromere division (PCD)
Mosaic variegated aneuploidy with microcephaly: a new human mitotic mutant?
For comments and suggestions or contributions, please contact us
variegated aneuploidy has also been described in patients without PCD and patients with Roberts syndrome
http://www.infobiogen.fr/services/chromcancer/Kprones/VariegAneuplPCDID10069.html   (812 words)

  
 Our Stolen Future: Bisphenol A causes aneuploidy
These results open up a dramatic new front on the study of human aneuploidy and point toward possible interventions that may help avoid many human birth defects.
Aneuploidy is a condition in which cells have the wrong number of chromosomes.
Patricia Hunt and Terry Hassold are two of the world's leading researchers on aneuploidy, and in using animal experiments to understand the causes and impacts of aneuploidy in people.
http://www.ourstolenfuture.org/newscience/oncompounds/bisphenola/2003/2003-0401huntetal.htm   (1348 words)

  
 Polyploidy and Aneuploidy
The risk of an aneuploid pregnancy leads many individuals and couples to seek genetic counseling;
Chromosomal aneuploidy may lead to infertility, pregnancy loss - such as miscarriage or stillbirth - the death of a child, as well as a number of birth defects, genetic syndromes, and /or mental retardation;
The aneuploidies most often seen in liveborns tend to be of smaller chromosomes such as 13, 18, 21, or the sex chromosomes.
http://www.mc.edu/campus/users/rbuckley/leslie.htm   (1015 words)

  
 The Association Between Fetal Nasal Bone Hypoplasia and Aneuploidy -- Odibo et al. 104 (6): 1229 -- Obstetrics & ...
The Association Between Fetal Nasal Bone Hypoplasia and Aneuploidy -- Odibo et al.
The Association Between Fetal Nasal Bone Hypoplasia and Aneuploidy
with fetal aneuploidy was a biparietal diameter/nasal bone ratio
http://www.greenjournal.org/cgi/content/abstract/104/6/1229   (359 words)

  
 Our Stolen Future: What is aneuploidy and why is it important?
Our Stolen Future: What is aneuploidy and why is it important?
Far less is understood about the biological mechanisms that cause it.
One explanation currently under study is that the hormonal environment of the cells surrounding the developing oocyte is involved in directing meiosis and ensuring that it unfolds normally.
http://www.ourstolenfuture.org/newscience/oncompounds/bisphenola/2003/2003-0328aneuploidy.htm   (1199 words)

  
 Detection of Aneuploidy in Human Spermatozoa of Normal Semen Donors by Fluorescence in Situ Hybridization
Environmental Health Perspectives (EHP) is a monthly journal of peer-reviewed research and news on the impact of the environment on human health.
The results give background information on the incidence of hyperploid spermatozoa in unexposed men and encourage the use of this novel technique for future studies on genetic effects in men exposed to potentially aneuploidogenic agents.
The possible age-related increase in aneuploidy frequencies was assessed.
http://ehp.niehs.nih.gov/docs/1996/Suppl-3/lahdetie.html   (269 words)

  
 Overexpressed Pituitary Tumor-Transforming Gene Causes Aneuploidy in Live Human Cells -- Yu et al. 144 (11): 4991 -- ...
prudent to point out that most aneuploidy observed in our study
(10, 11, 12, 28), suggesting that PTTG-induced aneuploidy may
that PTTG induces aneuploidy in single, live, human cancer cells.
http://endo.endojournals.org/cgi/content/full/144/11/4991   (3757 words)

  
 Aneuploidy - Glossary Entry - Genetics Home Reference
Can changes in chromosomes affect health and development?
Aneuploidy - Glossary Entry - Genetics Home Reference
http://ghr.nlm.nih.gov/ghr/glossary/aneuploidy   (75 words)

  
 Mad2 prevents aneuploidy and premature proteolysis of cyclin B and securin during meiosis I in mouse oocytes -- Homer ...
Assuming an equal incidence of hypoploidy, the total incidence
RNA interference in meiosis I human oocytes: towards an understanding of human aneuploidy
Hassold, T. and Hunt, P. To err (meiotically) is human: The genesis of human aneuploidy.
http://www.genesdev.org/cgi/content/full/19/2/202   (4058 words)

  
 Rapid, high throughput prenatal detection of aneuploidy using a novel quantitative method (MLPA) -- Slater et al. 40 ...
flexible, sensitive, and robust test for prenatal aneuploidy
Rapid prenatal diagnosis of chromosomal aneuploidies by fluorescence in situ hybridization: clinical experience with 4,500 specimens.
The results of this study therefore highlight the important
http://jmg.bmjjournals.com/cgi/content/full/40/12/907   (3206 words)

  
 Isolation of DNA probes specific for rat chromosomal regions 19p, 19q and 4q and their application for the analysis of ...
Laboratory of Health Effects Research, National Institute of Public Health and Environment, PO Box 1, 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands
Isolation of DNA probes specific for rat chromosomal regions 19p, 19q and 4q and their application for the analysis of diethylstilbestrol-induced aneuploidy in binucleated rat fibroblasts
Isolation of DNA probes specific for rat chromosomal regions 19p, 19q and 4q and their application for the analysis of diethylstilbestrol-induced aneuploidy in binucleated rat fibroblasts -- de Stoppelaar et al.
http://mutage.oupjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/15/2/165   (470 words)

  
 Loss of Heterozygosity Analysis Using Whole Genome Amplification, Cell Sorting, and Fluorescence-Based PCR -- Paulson ...
These flow-sorting techniques increase sensitivity of LOH detection
or aneuploidy can be identified in >95% of patients with esophageal
17p allelic losses in diploid cells of patients with Barrett's esophagus who develop aneuploidy.
http://www.genome.org/cgi/content/full/9/5/482   (5844 words)

  
 Micronuclei formation and aneuploidy induced by Vpr, an accessory gene of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 -- ...
Appropriate Technology Development and Transfer, International Medical Center of Japan, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 162-8655, Japan;
that aneuploidy would be induced by transient Vpr expression.
MIN formation has been considered a hallmark of aneuploidy and
http://www.fasebj.org/cgi/content/full/13/6/621   (6495 words)

  
 Aneuploidy - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
A change in the number of chromosomes leads to a chromosomal disorder.
A disomy is the presence of a pair of chromosomes, or the normal amount for some organisms including humans.
In humans the most common form of aneuploidy is trisomy, or the presence of an extra chromosome in each cell.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aneuploidy   (339 words)

  
 Aging and aneuploidy in human oocytes and follicular cells.
Previous reports of aneuploidy in human ovary and other somatic cell types suggest that follicular cells behave differently in their response to aging.
Aging and aneuploidy in human oocytes and follicular cells.
A significant difference between the percentage of granulosa cell aneuploidy in the 25 to 34 years group and all other age groups was found, suggesting a decrease of the tendency for granulosa cells to exhibit aneuploidy in older age groups.
http://www.arclab.org/medlineupdates/abstract_3745811.html   (200 words)

  
 Aneuploidy
Somatic aneuploidy and its resulting mosaics are often observed in association with cancer.
However, CML patients often show aneuploidy in addition to the Philadelphia chromosome.
In another study of 15 patients with intestinal tumors, 12 had cells with abnormal chromosomes, at least some with trisomy for chromosome 8, 13, 15, 17, or 21.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?db=Books&rid=iga.section.3080   (2602 words)

  
 Aneuploidy and cancer—the vintage wine revisited - Nature Biotechnology
In light of this, numerous investigators have proposed that "epigenetic mechanisms" might be responsible for drug and multidrug resistance in cancer cells, although before now no specific mechanism had been suggested.
Continuous chromosome reassortment, catalyzed by aneuploidy, as Duesberg and his colleagues argue in their most recent paper, is a likely mechanism to explain the high mutation rates of cancer cells.
, aneuploidy as the functional genetic basis of cancer passes both these tests in ways that should be of interest to biotechnologists of a variety of stripes.
http://www.nature.com/nbt/journal/v19/n1/full/nbt0101_22.html   (1042 words)

  
 Aneuploidy and Deletions
Aneuploidy is the condition of having less than or more than the normal diploid number of chromosomes, and is the most frequently observed type of cytogenetic abnormality.
The two most commonly observed forms of aneuploidy are monosomy and trisomy:
In other words, it is any deviation from euploidy, although many authors restrict use of this term to conditions in which only a small number of chromosomes are missing or added.
http://arbl.cvmbs.colostate.edu/hbooks/genetics/medgen/chromo/aneuploidy.html   (417 words)

  
 Changes in Chromosome Number
Studies in the jimsonweed, Datura stramonium, provide a classical example of the effects of aneuploidy and polyploidy.
Changes in chromosome number are of two basic types: changes in whole chromosome sets (resulting in a condition of aberrant euploidy) and changes in parts of chromosome sets (resulting in aneuploidy).
For example, the study of persons trisomic for only part of human chromosome 21 has made it possible to localize determinants specific to Down syndrome to various regions of chromosome 21, hinting that some aspects of the phenotype might be due to trisomy for single major genes in these chromosomal regions.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/bv.fcgi?db=Books&rid=mga.section.1179   (5025 words)

  
 Peter H. Duesberg
Aneuploidy versus gene mutation hypothesis of cancer: recent study claims mutation, but is found to support aneuploidy.
Instability of chromosome structure increases exponentially with degrees of aneuploidy.
Aneuploidy, the somatic mutation that makes cancer a species of its own.
http://mcb.berkeley.edu/faculty/BMB/duesbergp.html   (668 words)

  
 Guardian Unlimited The Guardian Preventing accidents of growth
Aneuploidy could be responsible for up to 20% of all birth defects.
Aneuploidy screening is yet another way to offer hope to couples who take IVF treatment - and to make sure of healthy children when a "test tube" embryo is successfully implanted.
In most cases, these cause spontaneous miscarriage - the mother never knows she was pregnant - but in a smaller number of cases, a baby may be born with Down's syndrome or other conditions.
http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk_news/story/0,3604,979698,00.html   (388 words)

  
 Correlations Among p53, Her-2/neu, and ras Overexpression and Aneuploidy by Multiparameter Flow Cytometry in Human ...
by gene amplification and/or aneuploidy in the clinical setting.
setting, as well as the development of aneuploidy (49).
Correlations Among p53, Her-2/neu, and ras Overexpression and Aneuploidy by Multiparameter Flow Cytometry in Human Breast Cancer: Evidence for a Common Phenotypic Evolutionary Pattern in Infiltrating Ductal Carcinomas
http://clincancerres.aacrjournals.org/cgi/content/full/6/1/112   (9397 words)

  
 Elevated Sperm Chromosome Aneuploidy and Apoptosis in Patients With Unexplained Recurrent Pregnancy Loss -- Carrell et ...
Frequency of aneuploidy in sperm from patients with extremely severe male factor infertility
Elevated Sperm Chromosome Aneuploidy and Apoptosis in Patients With Unexplained Recurrent Pregnancy Loss -- Carrell et al.
Leasa Lowy, MD Matthew Peterson, MD Kirtly P. Jones, MD Lisa Erickson, MD Bruce Campbell, MD Ware Branch, MD and
http://www.greenjournal.org/cgi/content/abstract/101/6/1229   (463 words)

  
 Aneuploidy definition - Medical Dictionary definitions of popular medical terms
Aneuploidy definition - Medical Dictionary definitions of popular medical terms
For example, three number 21 chromosomes or trisomy 21 (characteristic of Down syndrome) is a form of aneuploidy.
MedicineNet Home > MedTerms medical dictionary A-Z List > Aneuploidy
http://www.medterms.com/script/main/art.asp?articlekey=2249   (154 words)

  
 plating assay for aneuploidy in N. crassa
A new allele of the mei-1 gene was responsible for some of the high aneuploidy.
In an attempt to quantify better the effect of methylation on aneuploidy we developed a simple plate assay for aneuploid sexual progeny.
This suggestion grew from anecdotal observations of aneuploidy at frequencies higher than was expected based on literature values.
http://www.fgsc.net/fgn44/hagemann.html   (1254 words)

  
 Aneuploidy Screen - FISH Analysis
The aneuploidy FISH analysis is performed on interphase nuclei.
Prenatal aneuploidy screening by FISH can be performed on patients in need of rapid preliminary results due to an abnormal ultrasound examination or advanced gestational age.
Please note: Chromosome analysis is required on every patient sample referred for aneuploidy screening by FISH.
http://www.bcm.edu/geneticlabs/tests/cyto/aneuploidy.html   (269 words)

  
 Cell & Chromosome Full text MG-132, an inhibitor of proteasomes and calpains, induced inhibition of oocyte maturation ...
Mailhes JB: Important biological variables that can influence the degree of chemical-induced aneuploidy in mammalian oocyte and zygotes.
Although numerous hypotheses have been proposed to describe the etiology of aneuploidy in human gametes, the only steadfast association remains maternal age [1,2].
Although these findings support a relationship between disturbed proteasomal activity and chromosome segregation, considerable additional data are needed to further investigate the roles of proteasome-mediated proteolysis and other potential molecular mechanisms on chromosome segregation during OM.
http://www.cellandchromosome.com/content/1/1/2   (4063 words)

  
 Failed Clearance of Aneuploid Embryonic Neural Progenitor Cells Leads to Excess Aneuploidy in the Atm-Deficient But Not ...
Embryonic NPC aneuploidy is increased in all mutants.
Yurov YB, Vostrikov VM, Vorsanova SG, Monakhov VV, Iourov IY (2001) Multicolor fluorescent in situ hybridization on post-mortem brain in schizophrenia as an approach for identification of low-level chromosomal aneuploidy in neuropsychiatric diseases.
tissue, limit the direct study of neural aneuploidy and human
http://www.jneurosci.org/cgi/content/full/24/37/8090   (4216 words)

  
 Oocyte dysmorphism and aneuploidy in meiotically mature human oocytes after ovarian stimulation -- Van Blerkom and ...
Oocyte dysmorphism and aneuploidy in meiotically mature human oocytes after ovarian stimulation
Oocyte dysmorphism and aneuploidy in meiotically mature human oocytes after ovarian stimulation -- Van Blerkom and Henry 7 (3): 379 -- Human Reproduction
The aetiologies of aneuploidy in dysmorphic oocytes, as well
http://humrep.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/7/3/379   (576 words)

  
 Variation in Chromosome Number
As was mentioned above the effects of aneuploidy are not as severe in plants.
The best known condition is probably Down's Syndrome which results from an extra copy of chromosome 21.
An important point to remember is that aneuploidy is usually lethal in animals, but can be tolerated to a greater extent in plants.
http://www.cc.ndsu.nodak.edu/instruct/mcclean/plsc431/chromnumber/number3.htm   (354 words)

  
 Rapid Detection of Aneuploidy (Trisomy 21) by Allele Quantification Combined with Melting Curves Analysis of ...
Rapid Detection of Aneuploidy (Trisomy 21) by Allele Quantification Combined with Melting Curves Analysis of Single-Nucleotide Polymorphism Loci -- Pont-Kingdon and Lyon 49 (7): 1087 -- Clinical Chemistry
http://www.clinchem.org/cgi/reprint/49/7/1087   (28 words)

  
 Tetraploid State Induces p53-dependent Arrest of Nontransformed Mammalian Cells in G1 -- Andreassen et al. 12 (5): 1315 ...
of tetraploidization, which inevitably leads to aneuploidy, may
Subversion of the capacity of the cell to evade the consequences
Aneuploidy is common among tumor cells and frequently follows after an intermediate tetraploid state (Shackney et al.
http://www.molbiolcell.org/cgi/content/full/12/5/1315   (8516 words)

  
 Fluorescence In-Situ Hybridization (FISH-Prenatal-Aneuploidy/Microdeletion), Amniocytes, Chorionic Villi
This test can be used as an adjunct to chromosomal analysis for aneuploidy screening on interphase nuclei and on chromosomes for detection of submicroscopic/cryptic rearrangements in certain congenital disorders.
Note: The information contained in this handbook is for use by personnel of University of Iowa Health Care.
For submicroscopic rearrangement, preliminary results will be reported in eight days and the final written report will be available in two weeks.
http://www.medicine.uiowa.edu/Path_Handbook/handbook/test818.html   (186 words)

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